Category: Learning

Hypokalaemia

Hypokalaemia (low potassium), is a common problem. It is found in 14% of outpatients and 20% of inpatients, however only 4-5% of those are of clinical significance.

Severity

  • Severe: <2.5 mEq/l OR Symptomatic – Look for Hypomagnesaemia
  • Moderate: 2.5-2.9 mEq/l (No or Minor symptoms)
  • Mild: 3.0-3.4 mEq/l  (Usually asymptomatic)

Read more

COVID-19 (X-Ray learning resource)

British Society of Thoracic Imaging (BSTI) have released a free learning resource containing CXR and CT of confirmed Covid-19 cases, will short history including time image was taken from onset of symptoms.

From the China experience CXR/CT doesn’t seem to be a rule out strategy in ED at the moment – However, its a useful resource to help recognition of Covid-19 CXR’s

BSTI Covid-19 image bank

 

Acute Heart Failure (AHF) – ESC 2016

 

AHF Triggers

there are many triggers for AHF, which if recognized and treated with help improve outcomes

  • Cardiac: ACS, Arrhythmia, Aortic Dissection, Acute Valve Incompetence, VSD, Malignant Hypertension
  • Respiratory: PE, COPD
  • Infection: Pneumonia, Sepsis, Infective endocarditis
  • Toxins/Drugs: Alcohol, Recreational drugs, NSAIDs, Steroids, Cardiotoxic meds
  • Increased Sympathetic Drive: Stress
  • Metabolic: DKA, Thyroid dysfunction, Pregnancy, Adrenal Dysfunction
  • Cerebrovascular Insult

Presentation & Clinical Classification

The presentation of AHF can vary but tends to fall in to the following 4 categories, which can be determined clinically and can help guide your approach to treatment; warm-dry, warm-wet, cold-dry, cold-wet.

It is worth noting that the vast majority of patients will be norm-hypertensive. However, 5-8% are Hypertensive this confers a very poor prognosis.

Investigations

  • ECG: Rarely normal (High NPV), and may identify underlying cause
  • CXR: Pulmonary congestion, Effusion, Cardiomegaly (20% will have an almost “Normal” CXR)
  • BNP: Can be helpful (we have it)
    • >845 show increased mortality
    • <100 AHF is unlikely
    • BNP is not a specific test and will elevate for many reasons
  • POCUS: This can be very useful in identifying cases but training is required [Bilat B lines in 2 zones each side]
  • Condition specific tests: Try to identify the underlying trigger dependent on history and exam (e.g. ABG, Trop, U&E, TFT, LFT, CTPA)
  • ECHO: this is important but not necessary in the ED phase (unless the patient has haemodynamic instability i.e. cardiogenic shock)

Treatment – Time Matters!!!

  • Mortality increased by 1%/hour IV treatment not started
  • Treatment after 12hrs from onset makes little difference

Treat The Cause!: If you can identify the trigger treat it it will in turn improve the AHF. (e.g. AMI, Arrythmia(Tachy/Brady), Massive PE)

  • Vasodilator: has 2 effects reducing vascular resistance and thus increasing stroke volume [NOT to be used if sBP<90mmHg] 
  • Diuretic: commonly we use frurosemide 20-40mg IV, however, depending on the patient higher doses can be used. [Doses over 160mg has been shown to increase mortality!]
  • Oxygen: maintain SaO2 of 95% OR 88-92% if at risk of hypercapnic coma [Avoid hyperoxia]
  • NIV: recommended in respiratory distress (RR >25bpm, SpO2 <90%) & start ASAP, this can reduce intubations and make the patient feel more comfortable. However, doesn’t increase survival NIV Guide-HERE
  • SHOCK!!!: there is no agreement on the best treatment, ICU & Medical/Cardiology input is vital, as inotropes & vasporessors (Noradrenaline recommended) will need to be considered.

ESC Guide – 2016 Heart Failure

Hyponatraemia

Hyponatraema is a common finding, especially within our elderly population. However, its significance is is not a simple numbers game, and needs senior input. Prior to treatment the following need to be considered and balanced.

  1. Symptoms Severity – these are not exclusive to hyponatraemia and may be due to other disease processes (esp. if the low sodium is long-term)
  2. Sodium Level – the sodium concentration doesn’t always correlate to the clinical picture, and is dependant on speed of change, and co-morbidities
  3. Rate of Drop – the faster sodium levels drop the more symptomatic the patient often is (i.e. with long term hyponatraema the patient may be profoundly hyponatraemic but asymptomatic)
  4. Co-morbidities – Increasing sodium too quickly risks osmotic demyelination. How well will the patient cope with treatment?

Emergency treatment (hypertonic saline) is generally indicated in those with Severe Symptoms ONLY

Read more

Hyperosmolar Hyperglycaemic State (HHS)

HHS (A.K.A. HONK) is a diabetic emergency, but unlike DKA we don’t always think about it.

Patients with HHS are often elderly with multiple co-morbidities, and they are always very sick.

Definition

  • Hypovolaemia
  • Hyperglycaemia – generally ≥30mmol/l
  • High Osmolality – generally ≥320mosmol/kg (Calculation= 2[Na] + [Glucose] + [Urea])
  • & NOT:
    • Acidotic – pH >7.3, HCO3 >15mmol/l
    • Ketotic – blood <3mmol/l, Urine <2+

Read more

#NoF – Fractured Neck of Femur

BOAST Guidance

  • #NoF patients (or other fragility fracture) who requiring CT Head (for head injury) also be performed a CT Neck
    • Fragility fractures indicate the patient is at high risk of also sustain C-Spine injury.
    • Also the pain is likely distracting and the patient is often over 65yrs old so Canadian C-Spine rules will not apply.

Hx/Exam

  • Why did They Fall? – was this a collapse?
  • Are they sick? – Co-morbidity/illness is common in this group and must be recognised
  • Anticoagulants? – This affects treatment
    • On Warfarin – If INR >1.5 (or unavailable) Vit-K 5mg
  • Other injuries? – >65’s the most common mechanism of TARN major trauma is fall <2m
  • Typically – Pain hip/buttock, shortened, externally rotated
  • Atypical – Few signs (can they lift their leg & is rotation at the hip painful)

Read more